Top 7 Construction Project in India 🚀 🚀 🚀 🚀🚀 # JOBS

 

Top 7 Construction Project in India

Explore the Dynamic Landscape of Construction Project in India with Insightful Statistics and In-Depth Analysis

Explore the Dynamic Landscape of Construction Project in India with Insightful Statistics and In-Depth Analysis...

The construction industry in India stands as a formidable engine driving the nation’s economic growth, with a transformative impact on infrastructure development. As of the latest available statistics, the sector contributes significantly to India’s GDP, accounting for approximately 8% of the total, and employs over 40 million people, making it one of the largest employers in the country.

India’s rapid urbanization and population growth have led to an unprecedented demand for residential, commercial, and industrial spaces, propelling the construction industry into a pivotal role. Government initiatives such as “Make in India,” “Smart Cities Mission,” and ambitious infrastructure projects have further fueled the sector’s expansion.

According to recent data, India is home to some of the most ambitious construction projects, each contributing to the nation’s progress in unique ways. Noteworthy construction project in India include the Navi Mumbai International Airport, the Chenab Bridge – the world’s tallest rail bridge, the strategically vital Atal Tunnel, and the extensive Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor. These projects are not only engineering marvels but also key components in enhancing connectivity, promoting economic development, and fostering regional and national integration.

As we delve into specific construction project in India such as the Dwarka Expressway, Bengaluru Metro, and Bharatmala initiative, it becomes evident that these endeavors are shaping India’s future landscape. The statistics behind these projects highlight substantial investments, innovative approaches, and the commitment to building sustainable and resilient infrastructure.

Despite the sector’s robust growth, challenges such as budget overruns, project delays, and safety concerns persist. This introduction sets the stage for a comprehensive exploration of the construction industry in India, offering insights into its achievements, challenges, and the strategic solutions employed to ensure the successful realization of transformative projects that play a crucial role in India’s journey towards becoming an economic powerhouse.

 Background on the Construction Industry in India

The construction industry in India has experienced significant growth and transformation over the years, playing a pivotal role in the country’s economic development and infrastructure enhancement. India’s construction sector is renowned for its diversity, encompassing residential, commercial, industrial, and infrastructure projects that contribute to the nation’s progress.

One of the key drivers behind the industry’s robust growth is the rapid urbanization witnessed in India. As the population continues to migrate to urban centers, there is an increasing demand for housing, commercial spaces, and improved infrastructure. This surge in urban development has propelled the construction industry to the forefront of economic activities.

The government’s emphasis on ambitious infrastructure construction project in India has further fueled the construction sector’s expansion. Initiatives like “Make in India” and “Smart Cities Mission” have catalyzed infrastructural developments across the country, fostering the construction of highways, bridges, airports, and metro systems. The implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) has also streamlined taxation processes, contributing to a more organized and efficient construction ecosystem.

In addition to domestic factors, India’s construction industry has attracted international attention and investments. Global construction firms and investors are increasingly drawn to the opportunities presented by India’s burgeoning market. This influx of international collaboration has not only infused capital but has also introduced advanced technologies and best practices, elevating the overall standards of construction in the country.

However, the industry has faced its share of challenges. Regulatory hurdles, bureaucratic complexities, and issues related to land acquisition have at times posed obstacles to the seamless progress of construction project in India. Nonetheless, the government’s ongoing efforts to simplify regulations and promote ease of doing business are aimed at addressing these challenges and fostering a more conducive environment for construction activities.

The background of the construction industry in India reflects a dynamic landscape characterized by growth, diversification, and transformative initiatives. As the nation continues on its path of development, the construction sector remains a vital contributor, shaping the physical and economic contours of India’s future.

 

Top Construction Project in India 2024

Here is the list of top construction project in India, their description, total cost, etc.

 

1. Navi Mumbai International Airport

Total Cost: ₹160 billion (US$2.0 billion)

Scheduled for inauguration by the end of 2024, the Navi Mumbai International Airport (NMIA) is poised to revolutionize India’s aviation landscape, boasting the distinction of being the country’s first airport with multi-modal connectivity. Nestled in the Raigad district, this airport is strategically positioned to transform the dynamics of Navi Mumbai while alleviating the burden on the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport in Mumbai.

Resourced By Hindustan Times

In its inaugural year, NMIA is projected to amplify passenger capacity by an impressive 20 million individuals annually. This figure is expected to surge dramatically to accommodate a staggering 90 million passengers per annum upon the completion of its final phase. Notably, NMIA is envisioned as India’s largest planned General Aviation facility, featuring over 67 dedicated General Aviation aircraft stands and a separate heliport operation.

The construction of NMIA unfolds in five distinct phases, culminating in the interconnected integration of all four terminals. This visionary design extends beyond the terminals, ensuring seamless operations both airside and landside, facilitating efficient hub operations. Passenger terminals are meticulously crafted to optimize convenience, offering efficient walking distances from check-in counters to boarding gates.

Beyond its operational prowess, NMIA is set to captivate travelers with a unique blend of traditional Indian ambiance and futuristic elegance. The airport’s architectural finesse marries functionality with cultural aesthetics, creating an ambiance that reflects India’s rich heritage while embracing cutting-edge design principles.

As the Navi Mumbai International Airport emerges on the horizon, it not only signifies a crucial addition to India’s aviation infrastructure but also stands as a testament to the nation’s commitment to harmonizing tradition with innovation in its pursuit of excellence.

2. Chenab bridge

Total Cost: $168 million

The Chenab Bridge, situated between Bakkal and Kauri in the Reasi district of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), India, stands as an engineering marvel. Soaring at a height of 359m, this 1,315m-long structure holds the distinction of being the world’s tallest rail bridge. A monumental construction project in India with a cost of Rs14.86 billion ($181 million), the bridge is a crucial component of the Jammu-Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Line (JUSBRL) initiative led by the Ministry of Indian Railways. Featuring a 14m-wide dual carriageway and a 1.2m-wide central verge, the Chenab Bridge was completed in August 2022, with track laying accomplished in March 2023.

From Railway Technology

Scheduled for operational commencement in 2024, the Chenab Bridge is designed to endure for 120 years, making a significant contribution to local economic development and enhancing transportation accessibility in the region.

The rationale behind such an ambitious construction project in India lies in the challenging topography of J&K, where the mountainous terrain has posed considerable difficulties for residents in terms of travel. Recognizing the urgent need for improved transportation facilities, the Government of India proposed a national railway project to connect J&K with the rest of the country.

Launched in 2003, the JUSBRL project aims to cover a 345km section connecting Jammu and Baramulla, thereby improving mobility within J&K and fostering connectivity with the rest of India. The completed Jammu-Udhampur section, inaugurated in April 2005, was a significant milestone. Progress continues on the Udhampur-Baramulla section, with approximately 161km out of 272km completed, and the remaining 111km Katra-Banihal section is expected to be finished in 2024.

The comprehensive construction project in India involves the construction of various bridges and tunnels along the route, with the Chenab Bridge taking center stage as it spans the deep Chenab River, providing vital access to the Kashmir Valley from Udhampur. This transformative railway initiative promises to reshape regional connectivity and serve as a testament to India’s commitment to infrastructural development.

 

3. Atal Tunnel

Total Cost: ₹3,200 crore (US$438 million)

Undertaking excavation amidst heavy snowfall during winter posed a formidable challenge, particularly for a tunneling construction project in India that demanded precision and continuity. The excavation efforts were dual-sided, commencing from both ends. However, the closure of Rohtang Pass in winter rendered the north portal inaccessible during this season. Consequently, excavation operations were exclusively conducted from the south portal during the winter months. This resulted in an asymmetry in progress, with approximately one-fourth of the tunnel being excavated from the north end, while the remaining three-fourths were pursued from the south.

From NDTV

The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) stands as a pivotal force in India, specializing in road construction and providing indispensable support to the Indian Armed Forces. Its operational scope extends to the development and maintenance of road networks not only within India’s border areas but also in friendly neighboring countries. This expansive responsibility spans 19 states, three union territories (including Andaman and Nicobar Islands), and countries such as Afghanistan, Bhutan, Myanmar, Tajikistan, and Sri Lanka.

As of the year 2021, BRO’s remarkable contributions include the construction of over 50,000 kilometers of roads, the establishment of more than 450 permanent bridges with a cumulative length exceeding 44,000 meters, and the development of 19 airfields strategically positioned in key locations. Moreover, BRO plays a pivotal role in maintaining this extensive infrastructure, employing measures such as snow clearance operations.

Notably, BRO plays a vital role in the enhancement and construction of crucial India-China Border Roads. The organization draws its personnel from the General Reserve Engineer Force (GREF), constituting the core cadre, and also includes officers and troops from the Indian Army’s Corps of Engineers on extra regimental employment (on deputation). Recognized in the Order of Battle of the Armed Forces, BRO ensures its readiness to provide support whenever required. The organization’s motto, “Shramena Sarvam Sadhyam,” encapsulates its ethos, emphasizing the belief that everything is achievable through hard work.

 

4. Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor Construction Project

Total Cost: around $100 billion overall

The Government of India is actively advancing the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC), marking it as the inaugural industrial corridor along the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) that links Delhi and Mumbai, covering a vast stretch of 1504 km. This corridor traverses through the states of Uttar Pradesh, Delhi NCR, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra, with its terminals situated at Dadri in the Delhi NCR and Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT) near Mumbai.

By-Logistic Insider

The DMIC construction project in India spans multiple states, namely Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra, aligning with the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC). Several construction project in India under the DMIC umbrella are in various phases of development, contributing to the economic and infrastructural growth of the region.

These construction project in India include the Dholera Special Investment Region (DSIR) in Gujarat covering 22.5 sq. km, the Shendra-Bidkin Industrial Area (SBIA) near Aurangabad, Maharashtra spanning 18.55 sq. km, and the Integrated Industrial Township – Greater Noida (IITGN) in Uttar Pradesh encompassing 747.5 acres. Other significant construction project in India include Integrated Industrial Township – Vikram Udyogpuri (IITVU) in Madhya Pradesh (1,100 acres), Multi-Modal Logistics Hub in Nangal Chaudhary, Haryana (886 acres), and Dighi Port Industrial Area in Maharashtra (6056 acres), among others.

Notably, the trunk infrastructure works for Integrated Industrial Township – Greater Noida (IITGN) in Uttar Pradesh and Integrated Industrial Township – Vikram Udyogpuri (IITVU) in Madhya Pradesh have been completed, indicating substantial progress. The land allotment has commenced for various regions, including DSIR, SBIA, IITGN, and IITVU, attracting investments and witnessing the initiation of production by various companies.

An important milestone occurred on 7th September 2019, when the Hon’ble Prime Minister dedicated the Shendra Industrial Area (under DMIC) to the Nation, marking a significant step forward in the realization of the DMIC construction project in India. The completion and progress of trunk infrastructure in key areas like DSIR and SBIA further underscore the commitment to enhancing industrial and economic prospects in the region.

 

5. Dwarka Expressway

Total Cost: Rs 10,000 crore

The Dwarka Expressway project (NH 248-BB), spanning a length of 29.10 km, is an ongoing endeavor to establish an access-controlled expressway. The project’s route alignment connects Mahipalpur (Shiv Murti) in Delhi with Kherki Dhaula via New Gurgaon (Gurugram) in Haryana. Initially conceptualized as the Northern Peripheral Road (NPR) in 2006, the construction project in India transitioned to the oversight of the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) in 2016.

from Moneycontrol.com

Jointly undertaken by J Kumar and Larsen & Toubro, the expressway boasts an extensive infrastructure plan, featuring 20+ flyovers/bridges, 2 rail overbridges/underpasses, 11 vehicle underpasses, 20 underground pedestrian crossings, and a dedicated 2.5m wide cycle/bike path. The total estimated cost for this ambitious construction project in India is Rs. 8,662 crore, signaling a substantial investment in enhancing regional connectivity.

Scheduled for completion and opening in June 2023, the Dwarka Expressway has encountered a shift in its original deadline, now extending beyond the initially targeted date of December 2022. The construction project in India follows an Engineering, Procurement & Construction (EPC) model, emphasizing comprehensive planning and execution.

Owned by the NHAI, the expressway encompasses 8 lanes along with local service lanes, facilitating efficient traffic flow. Meanwhile, the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) has envisioned a metro line along the Dwarka Expressway. However, like several other projects, its progression awaits approval from the Haryana Government.

Noteworthy within the project’s scope is the incorporation of a new 5 km tunnel, strategically planned to connect with Terminal 3 at Delhi’s Indira Gandhi International (IGI) Airport. This tunnel signifies a strategic enhancement to transportation infrastructure, further integrating the expressway with crucial airport connectivity. As the construction project in India unfolds, it is poised to redefine regional accessibility and connectivity, contributing to the broader infrastructural landscape of the Delhi-NCR region.

 

6. Bengaluru Metro

Total Cost: Rs 16,041 crore

The Bangalore Metro, colloquially known as Namma Metro, stands as a testament to the transformative urban Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS) in Bengaluru, the capital and largest city of Karnataka. Comprising 2 lines and an extensive network of 51 stations, the metro system has become an integral part of the city’s transportation infrastructure.

The Economic Times

The initiation of Bangalore Metro Phase 1 marked a significant milestone, commencing construction in April 2007 with a network span of 42.30 km. The Purple Line’s inaugural section, linking Baiyyappanahalli to MG Road, commenced operations in 2011, while the sixth and final section was inaugurated by India’s President on June 17, 2017, heralding the commencement of commercial operations the following day.

Moving forward, the ambitious Bangalore Metro Phase 2, covering a substantial 73.921 km, began its construction journey in September 2015. Despite facing funding challenges, major civil construction contracts were eventually awarded in the first half of 2017. The extension of the Green Line to Silk Institute became operational in January 2021, offering a glimpse into the system’s expansion. The full realization of Phase 2, inclusive of a 13.9 km underground section on the Pink Line, is anticipated no earlier than 2024, culminating in a comprehensive metro network spanning 116.25 km.

Looking ahead, the visionary Bangalore Metro Phase 3 construction project in India is currently in the conceptual stage, envisaging routes covering an extensive 105.55 km. Notably, segments totaling 18 km (Central Silk Board to KR Puram) and 38 km (KR Puram to KIAL Airport) have been fast-tracked for concurrent construction with Phase 2 under the designations Phase 2A and Phase 2B, respectively. As Bangalore continues to evolve, the metro system stands as a vital pillar of its burgeoning urban landscape, facilitating seamless connectivity and contributing to the city’s sustainable development.

 7. Bharatmala

Total Cost: ₹692,324 crore (US$87 billion)

The Ministry has undertaken a comprehensive assessment of the National Highways (NHs) network to enhance road connectivity to border areas, develop coastal roads, including connectivity for non-major ports, and improve the efficiency of national corridors. This initiative is part of the Bharatmala Pariyojana, which encompasses various construction project in India such as the development of economic corridors, inter corridors, feeder routes, and integration with Sagarmala.

The Bharatmala Pariyojana envisions the development of approximately 26,000 km of economic corridors, in addition to the existing Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) and North-South and East-West (NS-EW) corridors. These corridors are anticipated to handle a significant portion of freight traffic on roads. Furthermore, the program identifies around 8,000 km of inter corridors and 7,500 km of feeder routes to enhance the effectiveness of economic corridors and existing GQ and NS-EW corridors.

To alleviate traffic congestion and improve logistic efficiency, the initiative includes the development of ring roads, bypasses, and elevated corridors. A total of 28 cities have been earmarked for the construction of ring roads, with 125 choke points and 66 congestion points identified for necessary improvements. Additionally, 35 locations have been pinpointed to establish multimodal logistics parks, aimed at reducing congestion, enhancing logistic efficiency, and lowering logistics costs for freight movements along the proposed corridors.

The Public Investment Board (PIB) endorsed the proposal during its meeting on June 16, 2017, and the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) subsequently approved Bharatmala Pariyojana Phase-I. The approved estimated cost for Bharatmala is Rs. 6,92,324 crore, which includes funding from cess collected from petrol and diesel, toll revenue, additional budgetary support, expected monetization of National Highways through Toll-Operate-Transfer (TOT), internal and extra-budgetary resources, and private sector investment, as per the financing plan up to 2021-22.

 

Challenges and Solutions

Construction projects, while essential for infrastructure development, often face various challenges that can impact timelines, budgets, and overall project success. Identifying these challenges and implementing effective solutions is crucial for ensuring the smooth execution of construction projects. Here are some common challenges and potential solutions:

1. Budget Overruns:
• Challenge: Unforeseen expenses, design changes, or inflation can lead to budget overruns.
• Solution: Thoroughly assess construction project requirements, conduct detailed cost estimations, and establish contingency funds. Regularly review and update the budget throughout the project.
2. Project Delays:
• Challenge: Delays can arise due to weather conditions, regulatory approvals, unforeseen site conditions, or supply chain disruptions.
• Solution: Develop realistic project timelines, account for potential delays in planning, and implement efficient project management practices. Regularly communicate with stakeholders to address issues promptly.
3. Safety Concerns:
• Challenge: Construction sites pose inherent safety risks, and accidents can lead to injuries or fatalities.
• Solution: Prioritize safety through rigorous training, implementation of safety protocols, regular inspections, and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). Foster a safety culture among all project stakeholders.
4. Design Changes:
• Challenge: Changes in project requirements or design alterations can disrupt workflows and impact project schedules.
• Solution: Encourage clear communication between project stakeholders, conduct thorough initial project planning, and establish a formal change order process to manage design changes efficiently.
5. Supply Chain Disruptions:
• Challenge: Issues such as material shortages, transportation delays, or geopolitical factors can disrupt the supply chain.
• Solution: Diversify suppliers, maintain buffer stock for critical materials, and stay informed about potential disruptions. Establish contingency plans to address supply chain challenges.
6. Regulatory Compliance:
• Challenge: Construction projects often need to comply with numerous regulations and permits, which can be complex and time-consuming.
• Solution: Engage with regulatory authorities early in the planning phase, maintain open communication, and proactively address compliance issues. Employ experienced professionals who are well-versed in local regulations.
7. Environmental Sustainability:
• Challenge: Construction activities can have environmental impacts, leading to concerns about sustainability and ecological preservation.
• Solution: Integrate sustainable practices into project planning, adopt eco-friendly construction materials and methods, and comply with environmental regulations. Seek green certifications for projects.
8. Communication Breakdown:
• Challenge: Poor communication among project stakeholders can lead to misunderstandings and delays.
• Solution: Establish clear lines of communication, hold regular meetings, use project management tools, and ensure that all stakeholders are well-informed. Foster a collaborative environment.

By addressing these challenges with proactive planning, effective communication, and strategic solutions, construction projects can enhance their chances of success and contribute to the development of robust and sustainable infrastructure.

 Conclusion

In conclusion, the construction industry in India stands at the crossroads of dynamic growth, diversification, and transformative initiatives. As the nation experiences rapid urbanization and an increasing demand for improved infrastructure, the construction sector plays a pivotal role in shaping the economic and physical contours of India’s future.

Government initiatives such as “Make in India” and “Smart Cities Mission” have catalyzed infrastructural developments, fostering the construction of key projects like highways, bridges, airports, and metro systems. The implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) has further streamlined processes, contributing to a more organized and efficient construction ecosystem.

International collaboration and investments have added another layer to the industry’s growth, bringing in advanced technologies and best practices. However, the sector has encountered challenges such as regulatory hurdles, bureaucratic complexities, and issues related to land acquisition. Despite these obstacles, ongoing governmental efforts to simplify regulations and promote ease of doing business signify a commitment to overcoming challenges and creating a conducive environment for construction activities.

Transitioning to specific projects, the Navi Mumbai International Airport, Chenab Bridge, Atal Tunnel, and others represent India’s commitment to cutting-edge infrastructure. These projects are not just engineering marvels but symbols of progress, connectivity, and economic development. The Dwarka Expressway, Bengaluru Metro, and the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor further contribute to regional connectivity, urban mobility, and economic growth.

The Bharatmala initiative, with its extensive network of economic corridors, inter corridors, and feeder routes, exemplifies a comprehensive approach to enhancing road connectivity and logistics efficiency. The challenges faced by construction projects, including budget overruns, delays, safety concerns, and environmental sustainability, require a proactive approach and strategic solutions to ensure successful construction project in India execution.

In essence, the construction landscape in India reflects a journey of overcoming challenges, embracing opportunities, and building a foundation for a prosperous and sustainable future. As these projects unfold and contribute to the nation’s development, they stand as testaments to India’s resilience, innovation, and commitment to excellence in the realm of construction and infrastructure

 

SHEAR STRENGTH by (1) Direct shear test. (2) Unconfined compression test. 3 Triaxial test. (4) Vane shear test. TO BE CONTINED

 

SHEAR STRENGTH

TO BE CONTINUED & EDITED SHORTLY 

The following methods are used for measuring the shear strength, of soil:-

(1) Direct shear test.

(2) Unconfined compression test.

 3    Triaxial test.

(4) Vane shear test.

Direct shear and triaxial tests are used both for cohesive and co- hesionless soils where as the unconfined compression test is employed only for cohesive soils because cohesionless soils are not able to form an unsupported soil cylinder. Vane shear test is also useful for cohesive soils of low shear strength. The details of all the above tests, to be performed for measuring the shear strength of soil, are described below.

                               SHOWING SECTIONAL DETAILS OF THE MACHINE

 1. Direct shear test: This test is usually carried out in a box and as such is known as shear box test. It consists of the following parts:- These terms indicate the respective speeds at which undrained and drained shear tests are usually conducted.

(1) A box of brass or gun metal, square or circular in cross section, open at the top and bottom. The box is split up horizontally into two equal halves which can be accurately fixed together. The di- mensions of the sample of soils ranging from clays to coarse sands are 6 cm x 6 cm x 2 cm and for gravels are 30 cm x 30 cm x 15 cm.

(ii The lower portion which is rigidly held in position in a container.

(iii) A geared jack for pushing forward the container at a constant rate:

(iv) Loading yoke.

(v) Steel ball.

(vi) Pressure pad.

(vii) Vertical deformation dial gauge.

(viii) Water grooves.

(ix) Porous plates.

Preparation of specimens

If the strength of the cohesive soil is required in its natural state, then, every effort should be made to obtain undisturbed specimens. If undisturbed specimens are unobtainable, then, remoulded specimens should be used and an approximate correction must be made for the loss in strength due to remolding. When the soil is to be disturbed and compacted, as in the case of earthen dams, embankments etc; the strength should be determined from remoulded specimens. In case of gravels and sands (i.e. cohesion less soils), there is usually no objection to remoulding provided the natural density and moisture content are known.

If the soil is cohesive, it should be compacted uniformly to the required moisture content and dry density. After this, the specimen should be trimmed to the required dimensions.

 Procedure: The following procedure is adopted :-

 (i) First of all place the porous plate at the bottom in the shear box

 (ii) Place the soil sample over it and, then, over the sample place an- other porous plate. In case the soil is hen, before placing cohesionless, then, the porous plate the surface of the soil should be levelled with the help of a leveler shown in fig.

 

(iii) Assemble the shear box parts and place it in its proper position.

(iv) Place the loading cap on the soil sample.

(v) Fix the vertical deformation measuring dial and note down its initial reading.

(vi) Apply some initial load on the sample and note the defor- mation readings at intervals of 5, 15, 30 seconds 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30 60 mts and 2, 4, 8, 16, 24 hours. Increase the loading till the desired normal load is achieved under which the sample is required to be sheared.

 (vii) Now adjust the horizontal measuring dial guage and note down its initial reading.

(viii) Apply the shear load. The rate of shear must not increase 0.01 mm per minute for cohesive soils.

(ix) Now apply a very small load on the shear box by starting the motor of the machine.

(x) After this, remove the screws which hold the two portions of the shear box so that the portions of the shear box do not have any connection except the soil sample placed in the box.

(xi) Adjust the dial gauge measuring vertical deformations inorder to measure the expansions or contractions.

(xii) Note down the initial readings on all the dial gauges.

(xiii) Now start applying the horizontal force and record the readings for shear force, time, shear and normal displacement. Record the readings initially after 5 mts.

(xiv) Continue the shearing of the soil sample till a constant load is maintained.

Calculations:

(i) Maximum shear stress= maximum shearing force area of soil sample

(i) Normal pressure total normal load area of soil sample

(iii) Maximum angle of internal friction

          i. e., $=tan-1( maximum shear stress normal pressure )

(iv) Plot the graph between normal load and shearing force. From the graph, get the value of 'c' (cohesion) as the interception on the axis-Y and angle of internal friction as the slope of the curve

(v) Plot the following relation also :-

(a) Shear stress versus normal stress.

(b) Vertical displacement versus lateral displacement.

 Precautions: The following precautions must be considered while performing the experiment :-

(i) The inner dimensions of the box should be measured care- fully before placing the soil sample in it.

(ii) The top surface of the soil should be levelled before placing porous plate over it.

(iii) The soil should be air dried and not oven dried because by oven drying the sample, the angle of internal friction changes.

✔Practical utility: The practical utility of a direct shear test is to evaluate;

(i) maximum shearing resistance of soil;

(ii) bond resistance (it affects the displacements and settlements of the superimposed structure and hence its safety);

(iii) temporary or permanent decrease in strength after failure;

(iv) stress-strain and volume characteristics which are helpful in finding out critical void ratio of cohesionless soils.

Form the above information, we can find out the suitability of soil for maintaining the stability of retaining walls, braced excavations, embankments etc.

2. Unconfined compression test:

       This test is performed inorder to measure compressive strength of a ylinder of soil to which no lateral support is offered. The shear strength is taken as equal to 0.5 times the compressive strength. Because no lateral pressure is employed in this test, it has the following features:

(i) It is used for cohesive soils only because a cohesionless soil will not form an unsupported cylinder.

(ii) It is the simplest and quickest method for measuring the shear strength of cohesive soils.

The uncompression machine consists of:

 (i) load frame;

(ii) proving ring;

(iii) deformation dial gauge;

(iv) bearing plates.

Preparation of specimen: The soil speciaen required for testing should parti ave a minimum diameter 38 mm. The size of the largest le present in the specimen should be smaller than th diameter of the soil specimen. The height to diameter ratio should be 2. The soil specimen may be;

 (i) undisturbed soil specimen;

(ii) remoulded soil specimen;

(iii) compacted soil specimen.

(i) Undisturbed soil specimen: The specimen of required dimensions is prepared from the sample obtained by driving thin wall tubes. The dimensions of the sample are reduced by using metre box, wire saw and soil lath. The diameter should be measured accurately at three places. The specimen should be handled carefully to prevent disturbance, change in cross-section or loss of water.

(ii) Remoulded soil specimen: In this case, specimens are prepared from disturbed soils. Such soils are compacted in the moulds of the specimen size. Uniform density should be maintained while compac- ting the soil layers. The soil specimens in this case may also be prepared from failed undisturbed specimens. In this case, the failed material should be wrapped in a thin rubber membrane and thoroughly worked with fingers in order to assure complete remoulding.

(iii) Compacted soil specimen Con Compaction of the disturbed soil should be done by using a mould of circular cross section with same dimensions as required for the specimen. Harvard compaction apparatus should be used for this purpose because samples obtained by this apparatus are more suitable.

 Procedure: The following procedure is adopted for determining the unconfined compressive strength of the cylinderical soil specimen :-

(i) Measure the initial length, diameter and weight of the specimen.

(ii) Place the cylinderical specimen on the bottom plate of the loading device with its vertical axis as near the centre of the loading plate as possible.

(iii) Adjust the strain dial gauges and note down the initial read- ings on theoretical deflection and proving ring dial.

(iv) Apply the load at a constant rate of strain usually to 2 percent per minute.

(v) Load the specimen till it has developed failure planes and cannot with-stand any more load. If the specimen does not crack but bulges, loading should be stopped after a strain of 20 percent is exceeded. Take the load at this stage as the maximum load which the soil sample can take.

(vi)  Measure the angle which the developed cracks make with the horizontal piane.

Precautions: The following precautions must be considered while performing the unconfined compression test :-

(i) The sample should be handled in such a way that there is no loss of moisture from it.

(ii) This test should not be used for non-uniform soils or varved clays.

(iii) The ratio of height to diameter of the sample should lie between 2 to 2.5.

(iv) The ends of the specimen should be coated with a thin layer of plaster of Paris in order to make them smooth.

Calculations:

(i) Cross-sectional area; A = A_{0}/(1 - e) where

A_{0} = initial cross-sectional area e = axial strain = (al)/l in which;

8l = in the specimen length as read front the strain dial indicator.

l = initial length of the specimen

 (ii) Compressive stress; q_{u} = P/A

where, P is the compressive load.

(iii) Plot the stress-strain curve and record the value of peak stress as the confined compressive strength of soil.

(iv) Unconfined s strength; overline -C u = 0.5q_{u}

Practical utility: The results obtained b erforming this test are

helpful in:

(1) Determining the sensitivity of the soil;

(if) estimating the bearing capacity of soil; in comparing the soil samples taken from various holes of similar soil as:

(iv) measuring the consistency of cohesive soil thus giving a clue to the danger of rupture of embankment slopes or other earth masses;

 (v) giving stress-strain relationships under rapid failure conditions.

                                                           Triaxial test

3. Triaxial test: Every small particle of soil in a soil mass is subjected to horizontal and vertical forces. In this test, conditions, similar to that in which the sample can exist in the field, are created. Although it is very difficult but at the same time it is very important to evaluate accurately the effective stresses and change in their magnitudes with time. Triaxial test provides a convenient and accurate method of evaluating the same.

 

In triaxial test, the soil specimen is subjected to lateral pressures and axial compressive stresses till the soil specimen fails by shear. The lateral pressures or radial stresses are generated by fluid pressure (generally water) and the axial stresses are generated by some loading system.

A triaxial compression chamber as shown in fig. 7-10 which consists of

 (i) lateral pressure chamber;

 (ii) air pressure control valve;

 (iii) necessary valves for pore water out-let, fluid inlet and out

 let;

 (iv) deforma on detail;

 (v) porous discs;

 (vi) base pedestal;

 (vii) Rubber membrane which encloses the cylindrical soil specimen.

 Brief procedure: A cylindrical  soil specimen enclosed in a thin rubber membrane is placed on the base pedestal in the test chamber. The rubber membrane should be such as to exert minimum restrain: to the sample and to prevent any leakage both from the chamber into the sample and from the sample into the chamber.

 (Porous discs are used if the drainage is to be permitted).

The chamber is filled with water and any air within the chamber is removed. The required lateral pressure is applied which is kept constant throughout the loading when the axial load is applied. The axial loads are applied till the soil specimen fails. The axial loads are applied to the soil specimen naturally by turning the gear wheel. It may also be applied by dead weig weights lectric motor). or mechanically by means of

 SHOWING FAILURE OF CYLINDERICAL SOIL SAMPLES BY SHEAR

Different soil specimens are tested and in each case, the applied lateral pressure must be different. Soil samples fail by shear on internal surfaces although only compressive loads are applied. The shearing strength of soil specimen is determined from the applied loads at Tailure.

Practical utility: The results which are obtained from the triaxial compression test such as shear strength, angles of internal friction pore pressure, ultimate compressive streneth are used for the following porposes:-

(1) Stability calculations for foundation, earthwork, earth retain- ing structures etc.

(II) Determination of settlement of soils under compressive loads.

(iii) Estimation of bearing power of soil.

(+) Analysing the stress-strain relationship of soils.

Advantages over direct shear test: The triaxial test has got follow- ing advantages over direct shear lest:-

(1) In shear box test, the soil near the edges fails earlier than the soils at the centre because stress distribution is not uniform. In the case of triaxial test, the stress distribution is uniform on the failure plane.

(ii) In case of direct shear test, the plane of shear failure is prede- termined whereas in triaxial test, the plane of shear failure is not predetermined. Therefore, in case of triaxial test, the plane of shear failure will tend to develop in the weakest portion of the soil specimen.

(ii) Measurement of pare prestures and volume changes are accurate in case of triaxial test than shear bos test because area of failure surface is not constant

(iv) The state of stress within the soil specimen is completely deter- minste at any stage of the trat.

                         4. Vane shear test:

   This test is useful for cohesive soils of low shear strength Le. soft clays which have unconfined compresive strength less than 1 kg/cm³.

The shear vans consists of four blades called vanes each fixed at 90° to the adjacent blades as shown in fig 7-12. The vane is designed in anch a way that it causes as little remoulding and disturbance as posible to the soil. The vaje blades are welded together to a central steel rod known as torque rod.

 The vane is rotated after forcing it is undisturbed soil at a uniform speed of 0.1 degree per second by suitably operating the torque handle until the specimen fails. When the vane rotates, the soil shears cars along the cylinderical surface. The twisting moment is indicated by the angle of  twist. The shear strength of the soil is calculated by using the following Formula-

S pi((d ^ 2 * h)/2 + (d ^ 3)/6)

Where: strength in kg / c * m ^ 3

T = applied torque in cm-kg.

d = diameter of vane in cm

[It is recommended as 19 mm by IS: 2720 (Part*) -1968]

height of vane in cm [also recommended as 12 mm by 15/2720 (port*)-1968]

Therefore, equation (1) as per IS recommendations reduces to s = 0.276T

.TO BE CONTINED………with snapshots completed 

Importance of Testing Cement before Construction

 

         Importance of Testing Cement before Construction

These different methods for testing the strength of Cement are important to ensure that the Cement used in construction meets the necessary standards and is able to perform its intended function.

Testing Cement before construction is important for several reasons:

Quality assurance: Cement tests ensure that the Cement used in construction meets the necessary quality standards. It helps to ensure that the Cement is of the required strength, durability, and other properties necessary for its intended use.

Safety: Cement tests ensure that the Cement used in construction is safe for use. It helps to prevent accidents and failures that could occur due to the use of substandard Cement.

Cost-effectiveness: Testing Cement helps to make sure that the right quantity of Cement is used for a particular application. This can help to avoid wastage and reduce costs.

Durability: Testing Cement helps to ensure that the Cement used in construction is durable and able to withstand the intended load and environmental conditions.

Compliance: Cement tests help to make sure that the Cement used in construction complies with relevant industry standards and regulations. This is important for ensuring that the construction project meets legal requirements and is safe for use.

In summary, testing Cement before construction is important for ensuring the quality, safety, cost-effectiveness, durability, and compliance of the construction project. It is a necessary step in the construction process that should not be overlooked.

 

                                         DETERMINATION OF FINENESS OF CEMENT BY SIEVIE

Theory:

Cement is obtained by grinding various raw materials after calcinations. The degree to which cement is ground to smaller and smaller particles is called fineness of cement. The fineness of cement has an important role on the rate of hydration and hence on the rate of gain of strength and also on the rate of evolution of heat. Finer cement offers a greater surface area for hydration and hence the faster development of strength although the ultimate strength is not affected. Fineness also provides more cohesiveness to concrete and avoid separation of water at the top of concrete (called bleeding). However, increase in fineness of cement increases the drying shrinkage and cracking of the concrete. Fineness of cement is tested either by sieving or by determination of specific surface using air-permeability apparatus. The specific surface is defined as the total surface area of all the particles in cm² per one gram of cement. Although determination of specific surface is more accurate to judge fineness of cement, it is rarely used except for specific purpose. In contrast sieving is most commonly used method to determine fineness of cement and is quite good for field works.

Objective: Determination of fineness of cement by dry sieving. Reference: IS 4031 (Part-1):1988. Apparatus: IS-90 micron sieve conforming to IS: 460 (Part 1-3)-1985; Weighing balance; Gauging trowel; Brush. Material: Ordinary Portland cement

Procedure: 1. Weigh accurately 100 g of cement to the nearest 0.01 g and place it on a standard 90 micron IS sieve.

2. Break down any air-set lumps in the cement sample with fingers.

3. Agitate the sieve by giving swirling, planetary and linear movements for a period of 10 minutes or until no more fine material passes through it.

4. Collect the residue left on the sieve, using brush if necessary, and weigh the residue.

5. Express the residue as a percentage of the quantity first placed on the sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent.

6. Repeat the whole procedures two more times each using fresh 100 g sample. 2

 Observations:

Sl. No	Weight of sample taken (W) (in g.)	Weight of residue (R) (in g.)	%age of residue = 𝑅 ̸ 𝑊 × 100	Average % of residue
1
2
3
4

Result: Percentage residue of cement sample by dry sieving is ___________ percentage.

Conclusions: The given sample of cement contains less than/ more than 10% by weight of material coarser than 90 micron sieve.

Therefore it satisfies/ not satisfies the criterion as specified by IS code. Precautions:

Discuss about the precautions to be taken while conducting this experiment

                   ADVANCE STUDY/KNOWLEDGE

The fineness of cement has a direct impact on the rate of hydration. Finer cement particles have a greater surface area, which allows for faster chemical reactions between the cement and water during the hydration process.

Specifically:

Finer cement particles have a larger surface area per unit volume compared to coarser particles. This increased surface area provides more sites for the hydration reactions to take place.

·         The faster hydration of finer cement allows for quicker development of strength in the early stages of cement setting and hardening. The higher surface area accelerates the initial chemical reactions.

·         Finer cement also results in a more homogeneous and dense hydration product distribution within the cement paste. This improves the overall strength and durability of the hardened cement.

·         However, excessively fine cement can also lead to challenges, such as increased water demand, higher heat of hydration, and increased risk of drying shrinkage. There is an optimal fineness range for cement based on the intended application.

In summary, increasing the fineness of cement generally increases the rate of hydration, leading to faster initial strength gain, but must be balanced against potential drawbacks of very fine cement particles.

 

                      Advantages and disadvantages of Fineness of Cement

The disadvantage of high fineness, include: - The cost of grinding to a higher fineness is considerable. - The finer the cement the more rapidly it deteriorates on exposure to the atmosphere during bad storage. - Finer cement increases the surface area of its alkalis – leads to stronger reaction with alkali- reactive aggregate – cracks and deterioration of concrete. - Finer cement exhibits a higher shrinkage and a greater proneness to cracking. - An increase in fineness increases the amount of gypsum required for proper retardation because, in finer cement, more C3A is available for early hydration (due to the increase of its surface area). Fineness of cement is tested in two ways:

(a) By sieving.

(b) By determination of specific surface (total surface area of all the particles in one gram of cement) by air-permeability apparatus. Expressed as cm² /gm or m² /kg.

Generally Blaine Air permeability apparatus is used.

a) By sieving: Weigh correctly 100 grams of cement and take it on a standard IS Sieve No. 9 -90 µ microns). Break down the air-set lumps in the sample with fingers. Continuously sieve the sample giving circular and vertical motion for a period of 15 minutes. Mechanical sieving devices may also be used. Weigh the residue left on the sieve. This weight shall not exceed 10% for ordinary cement. Sieve test is rarely used due to clogging sieves opens with cements particles.

b) By Blaine test Principle of this method is in observing the time taken for a fixed quantity of air to flow through compacted cement bed of specified dimension and porosity. Volume of cement bed in the cell can be found by it with mercury before and after putting cement on it then determine the difference between two weights, this difference divided by mercury density in room temperature to obtain volume of cement bed. Repeat this for twice at least and use the average value of volume in following equations, also the weight of cement used in cell must be with porosity equal to 0.5 ± 0.0005.

                                                                         W= 3.15 V ( 1 – e )

Which: 3.15 = specific gravity of cement W= weight of cement V = volume of cement bed e = porosity of cement bed Place the perforated disc on the ledge at the bottom of the cell and place on it a new filter paper disc. Place the sample of standard cement weighted (W) with knowing surface area, in the cell. Place a second new filter paper disc on the levelled cement. Insert the plunger and press it gently but firmly until the lower face of the cap is in contact with the cell. Then air pumped inside the tube raise the level of the manometer liquid to that of the highest etched line. Close the stopcock and the manometer liquid will begins to flow. Start the timer as the liquid reaches the second etched line and stop it when the liquid reaches the third etched line. Record the time, t .The procedure repeats three times for standard sample and tested one. The surface area then can be calculated by      Which:

S = specific area of tested cement sample ( cm² \gm) Ss = specific area of standard cement ( cm² \gm ) T = average time for tested sample Ts = average time for standard sample.

Correction factor of a sieve

A correction factor is a factor multiplied with the result of an equation to correct for a known amount of systemic error.

Although many numerical evaluations are likely to be precise, you may not always arrive at a specific conclusion in terms of measurements. This is because multiple factors can come into play, resulting in skewed conclusions. Oftentimes the need for evaluating these uncertain factors is a necessity.

This process of evaluating factors that lead to uncertainty in measurement results is known as uncertainty evaluation or error analysis. Error analysis is dependent on correction factors, which are designated calculations implemented to evaluate uncertain factors in measured results

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